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Latin, controlled by the Church in Rome, had a stranglehold over knowledge and reli- gion until challenged by the European Humanist movement of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Then, in the early fifteenth century, the Protestant Reformation of northern Europe, which was to lead to a huge schism within Christianity, began to challenge Latin through the translation of the Bible into vernacular languages.
Even the mere act of translation could be considered a threat to the established order — for instance, the Index of the Spanish Inquisition prohibited the publication of the Bible in any vernacular language Barnstone An even worse fate lay in store for some of the translators who sought to make such texts available to a wider public.
The most famous examples are the English theologian-translator William Tyndale c. Tyndale was a formidable linguist who was said to have mastered ten languages, including Hebrew. His extraordinary English Bible, produced in exile, was later used as the basis for the Geneva Bible and King James version Tyndale was abducted, tried for heresy and executed in the Netherlands in Bobrick , Chapter 2.
The revolution in Bible translation practice in Europe was galvanized by Humanist advances in the study and knowledge of Greek and Hebrew and of Classical scholarship. The general climate of the Reformation and the new technology of the printing press meant that Bible translations dominated book production Bobrick Non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.
Luther played a pivotal role in the Reformation while, linguis- tically, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that variety of the German language as standard. Luther follows St Jerome in rejecting a word-for-word translation strategy since it would be unable to convey the same meaning as the ST and would some- times be incomprehensible. For her, theory was generally unconnected and amounted to a broad series of prefaces and comments by practitioners who often ignored, or were ignorant of, earlier discourse.
As a result: [t]his lack of consecutiveness in criticism is probably partially accountable for the slowness with which translators attained the power to put into words, clearly and unmistakably, their aims and methods. Kelly looks in detail at the history of western translation theory, starting with the teachings of the Greek and Latin writers of Classical Antiquity and tracing the history of what he calls ibid.
These were sites for contestation, depending to a large degree on historical context and on societal conceptualizations of translation. So, the concept of fidelity or at least the translator who was fidus interpres, i.
Indeed, it was not until the end of the seventeenth century that fidelity had come to be generally identified with faithfulness to the meaning rather than the words of the author.
Kelly ibid. Much later, spirit lost the religious sense it originally possessed and was thenceforth used in the sense of the creative energy of a text or language.
In contrast to Amos, Rener makes a persuasive case for continuity in the early translation prefaces in the west. Grammar privileged words that exhibited the values of proprietas acceptability , puritas purity and perspecuitas clarity ; a word should be accepted as an inte- gral part of the language and commonly understood, it should have a long history and be employed in the texts of high-status writers.
The influence of this thinking persisted. A keen example of the importance of rhetoric can be seen in the Italian humanist Leonardo Bruni — , who translated philosophical works of the Classical Greek and Latin authors and occupied high ecclesiastical office.
For him, such stylistic demands could only be met through the learn- edness and literariness of the translator, who needed to possess excellent knowl- edge of the original language and considerable literary ability in his own language.
Note his description of the move in translation from Early Modern literalism to Humanist style and rhetoric. See also Hermans At that time, apart from the Bible, translation into English was almost exclusively confined to verse renderings of Greek and Latin Classics. Because at that time translation had come to be valued as an exercise in creativity and novelty, some of these renderings were extremely free.
Such a very free approach to translation produced a reaction, notably from another English poet and translator, John Dryden — , whose brief description of the translation process would have enormous impact on subsequent translation theory and practice.
Dryden thus prefers paraphrase, advising that metaphrase and imitation be avoided. See Venuti 52—3 for further discussion.
In general, Dryden and others writing on translation at the time are very prescrip- tive, setting out what in their opinion has to be done in order for successful transla- tion to take place. Other early writers on translation also began to state their principles in a simi- larly prescriptive fashion. Here again, the concern is to reproduce the sense and to avoid word-for-word translation. But the stress on producing an eloquent and natural TL form was rooted in a Humanist enthusiasm for the rediscovered Classics and a political desire to reinforce the structure and independence of the new vernacular French language.
The third law ibid. Tytler regards this as the most difficult task and likens it, in a traditional meta- phor, to an artist producing a copy of a painting. But it is unclear what that actually is. Tytler himself recognizes that the first two laws represent the two widely different opinions about translation.
They can be seen as the poles of faithfulness of content and faithfulness of form, reformulations of the sense-for-sense and word-for-word diad of Cicero and St Jerome. Importantly, however, just as Dolet had done with his principles, Tytler ranks his three laws in order of comparative importance. Such hierarchical categorization gains force in more modern translation theory.
Thus, ease of composition would be sacrificed if necessary for manner, and manner could be sacrificed in the interests of sense. These concepts became central to twentieth- century Chinese translation practice and theory.
Hermans , online usefully discusses the range of meanings inherent in the three principles as well as the disagreements as to how these concepts align with western translation theory. Modern-day Chinese linguists have also criticized his principles for being vague and difficult to apply Chan Distinct from other translation theorists we have discussed so far in this chapter, Schleiermacher first distinguishes two different types of translator working on two different types of text.
This does not entail writing as the author would have done had he written in German. Thus can the TT be faithful to the sense and sound of the ST and can import the foreign concepts and culture into German Forster The dichotomy is assumed to have analysable meaning.
This is the central epistemological weakness and sleight of hand. These approaches form the core of the following chapters in this book. Case study 1 examines two examples of criteria for assessing translations. In both cases the aim is to iden- tify how far the ideas and vocabulary of early theory held sway in later writing on translation. Case study 1: Assessment criteria The area of assessment criteria is one where a more expert writer a marker of a translation examination or a reviser of a professional translation addresses a less expert reader usually a candidate for an examination or a junior professional translator.
It is interesting to see how far the vocabulary used is the rather vague vocabulary of early translation theory. As we discuss in Chapter 3, these terms are influenced by terminology suggested by Nida in the s. Thus, these criteria make an attempt at formalizing clear rules for translation. Nevertheless, the qualification of the adjective literal by the adverbs too and totally suggests that literal alone is not now being viewed as the extreme. Rather, as was suggested in section 2. The first of these points indicates the extent to which old metaphors of translation persisted even in quite modern writings.
The third point shows an awareness that different approaches may be valid for different texts. This was noted by Schleiermacher in his division of categories into business and philosophical texts but which, as we discuss in Chapter 5, has far more to do with the text-type approach of Reiss. Sometimes their function is to justify the production of a new transla- tion of a classic work. Originally translated from French into English in the s by the celebrated Charles Kenneth Scott Moncrieff — , the English was revised in by Terence Kilmartin and in by D.
The language of the prefaces reflects the cultural values of the time in which the translations were created. In the introduction of the translation p. Kilmartin ibid. They are often strange even to French ears, and there may well be a respectable argument to the effect that oddly unEnglish shapes are sometimes the best way of preserving their estranging force.
At the same time, he shows an awareness of the possible choices between foreignizing and naturalizing translation see Schleiermacher and seeks a balance rather than modernizing the old TT. Davis in Proust xxxi Discussion of case studies These two brief case studies indicate that the vocabulary of early translation theory persisted widely to the end of the twentieth century and beyond. However, the texts examined in the case studies were written mainly for the general reader or novice translator.
As we shall see in the next chapter, the direction of translation theory from the second half of the twentieth century was generally towards a systematization of different elements of the translation process. Summary The general trend of western translation theory from Cicero in Classical antiquity to the twentieth century centred on the recurring debate as to whether transla- tions should be literal word-for-word or free sense-for-sense , a diad that is famously discussed by St Jerome in his translation of the Bible into Latin.
Controversy over the translation of the Bible was central to translation theory in the west for well over a thousand years. Early western theorists tended to be translators who presented a justification for their approach in a preface to the translation.
They are often portrayed as paying little attention or not having access to what others before them had written. However, they reflected a faith- fulness to the religious text, often manifested in Early Modern literalism, or a Classical view of language based on principles of clarity, logic and elegance that came to the fore with the advent of European Humanism.
Further reading There are a large number of collections and histories of translation. English is partic- ularly well-served with Classe , France , and the five-volume Oxford History of Literary Translation in English Braden et al. Readers are recommended to follow their specific interests regarding country, period, cultures and languages. Delisle and Woodsworth and Baker and Saldanha are particularly useful in giving the background to translation in a wider range of cultures. Kelly is especially strong on the Latin tradition and Rener is a very detailed exploration on the concept of language and translation from Classical times to Tytler.
Adams looks at Latin bilin- gualism in Antiquity and McElduff examines Roman translation theories. Louw and Rajak examine translation of the Septuagint. Bobrick outlines the history of English Bible translation and how it transformed the language; Barnstone does the same from a translation studies perspective. Selim contains articles on translation and the Arab world. The papers in Hermans a, b cover a range of non-western thought on translation. Pym and Rundle are useful as a presentation of investigative methods in translation history.
What kinds of comments are made about the translation itself? How far is the vocabulary used similar to that described in this chapter? How far are the criteria still centred on the theoretical concepts discussed in this chapter? How closely does it resemble the writings discussed in this chapter? Are there significant differences in early translation theory written in different languages? Compare the varied papers in Hermans a, b. What are the similarities and differences between them?
Try and depict this comparison visually see Table 3. How useful do you consider these principles for guiding a translator? CHAPTER 3 Equivalence and equivalent effect Key concepts Q The problem of translatability and equivalence in meaning, discussed by Jakobson and central to translation studies for the following decades. In order to avoid the age-old opposition between literal and free translation see Chapter 2 , theoreticians in the s and s began to attempt more system- atic analyses.
The new debate revolved around certain key linguistic issues. Over the following twenty years many further attempts were made to define the nature of equivalence. Jakobson goes on to examine key issues of this type of translation, notably linguistic meaning and equivalence. Jakobson follows the theory of language proposed by the famous Swiss linguist Saussure — Instead of cheese, the signifier could easily have been bread, soup, thingummyjig or any other word.
Jakobson also stresses that it is possible to understand what is signified by a word even if we have never seen or experienced the concept or thing in real life.
Examples he gives are ambrosia and nectar, words which modern readers will have read in Greek myths even if they have never come across the substances in real life; this contrasts with cheese, which they almost certainly have encountered first-hand in some form. In Russian, that would be tvarog and not syr. This general principle of interlinguistic difference between terms and semantic fields importantly also has to do with a basic issue of language and translation.
On the one hand, linguistic universalism considers that, although languages may differ in the way they convey meaning and in the surface realizations of that meaning, there is a more or less shared way of thinking and experiencing the world. On the one hand, linguistic relativity or determinism in its strongest form claims that differences in languages shape different conceptualizations of the world.
This is the famous Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that had its roots in the behaviourism of the s and in the anthropological study of the native American Hopi language, which, according to Whorf , had no words or grammatical categories to indicate time. Another claim that is often made is that Eskimos have more words for snow because they perceive or conceive of it differently. This claim, and indeed linguistic determinism itself, is firmly rejected, amongst others, by Pinker 57—65; —51 , who points out that the vocabulary of a language simply reflects what speakers need for everyday life.
The absence of a word in a language does not mean that a concept cannot be perceived — someone from a hot climate can be shown slush and snow and can notice the difference. Thus, a translation of cottage cheese would not be the TT unit for cottage plus the unit for cheese; the message cottage cheese would be consid- ered and translated as a whole.
Thus, Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two separate concepts. For Jakobson ibid. Examples of differences are easy to find. They occur at: Q the level of gender: e. These examples illustrate differences between languages, but they are still concepts that can be rendered interlingually.
As Jakobson ibid. How are these dealt with in translation? The title of the first book is significant; Nida attempts to move Bible translation into a more scientific era by incorporating recent work in linguistics.
In very simplified form, the key features of this model can be summarized as follows: 1 Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure which is 2 transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to another e. The structural relations described in this model are held by Chomsky to be a universal feature of human language. The most basic of such structures are kernel sentences, which are simple, active, declarative sentences that require the minimum of transformation e.
In particular, Nida sees that it provides the translator with a technique for decoding the ST and a procedure for encoding the TT Nida a: This three-stage system of translation analysis, transfer and restructuring is presented in Figure 3.
Kernels are to be obtained from the ST surface structure by a reductive process of back transformation. Examples of analysis e. Nida a: 64 , designed to illustrate the different constructions with the preposition of, are: surface structure: will of God back transformation: B object, God performs A event, wills and surface structure: creation of the world back transformation: B object, the world is performed by A event, creates.
Nida and Taber ibid. Box 3. The two examples of literary transfer are different stylistically, notably in syntax, the American Standard Version being more formal and archaic. Nida ibid. Thus, son denotes a male child. A series of techniques, adapted from linguistics, is presented as an aid for the translator in determining the meaning of different linguistic items. Techniques to determine referential and emotive meaning focus on analysing the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields.
These include hierarchical structuring, which differentiates series of words according to their level for instance, the superordinate animal and its hyponyms goat, dog, cow, etc. The latter seek to identify and discriminate specific features of a range of related words. The results can be plotted visually to assist in making an overall comparison.
For example, Table 3. Table 3. Such results are useful for a translator working with languages that have different kinship terms. Sometimes more values will need to be incorporated. For example, Chinese may distinguish lexically between the maternal and paternal grandfather. Spirit thus does not always have a religious significance.
Even or perhaps especially when it does, as in the term Holy Spirit, its emotive or connotative value varies according to the target culture Nida ibid. Above all, Nida ibid. Thus, the Hebrew idiom bene Chuppah lit. In general, techniques of semantic structure analysis are proposed as a means of clarifying ambiguities, elucidating obscure passages and identifying cultural differences.
They may serve as a point of comparison between different languages and cultures and are proposed by Nida especially for those working with widely differing languages. How far do these map onto the English terms? How helpful is this componential analysis for translation? One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.
This type of translation will often be used in an academic or legal environment and allows the reader closer access to the language and customs of the source culture. Nida a: This receptor-oriented approach considers adjustments of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness.
For Nida, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equiva- lent effect or response. This suggests that the scientific approach is still supported by the essential subjectivity of some of the language of the literal vs. His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based or reader-based orientation to trans- lation theory. However, both the principle of equivalent effect and the concept of equivalence have come to be heavily criticized for a number of reasons: Lefevere 7 felt that equivalence was still overly concerned with the word level, while van den Broeck 40 and Larose 78 considered equivalent effect or response to be impossible.
How can a text possibly have the same effect and elicit the same response in two different cultures and times? Indeed, the whole question of equivalence inevitably entails subjective judgement from the translator or analyst.
It is interesting that the debate continued into the s. The focus in these papers5 is notably on the impossibility of achieving equivalent effect when meaning is bound up in form, for example the effect of word order in Chinese and English, especially in literary works Qian Hu b: —6. The example given ibid. Note the criticisms made. How valid do you consider these criticisms to be?
The techniques for the analysis of meaning and for transforming kernels into TT surface structures are carried out in a systematic fashion, but it remains debatable whether a translator follows these procedures in practice. Additionally, Nida showed he was aware of what he terms ibid. Ironically, Nida is also taken to task by certain religious groups who maintain that the Word of God is sacred and unalterable; the changes necessary to achieve dynamic equivalence would thus verge on the sacrilegious.
Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. An example would be a modern British English translation of Homer. No modern translator, irrespec- tive of the TL, can possibly hope or expect to produce the same effect on the reader of the written TT as the oral ST had on its listeners in ancient Greece.
Newmark ibid. On the other hand, as we Table 3. Importantly, as long as equivalent effect is achieved, Newmark holds literal translation to be the best approach: In communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best, it is the only valid method of translation. Newmark 39 This assertion can be related to what other theorists e. An example of this, provided by Newmark ibid. It would be translated communicatively as beware of the dog!
It should also be noted that in his later discourse e. The two can be differentiated as follows: 1 Correspondence falls within the field of contrastive linguistics, which compares two language systems and describes differences and similarities contrastively. This would include the identification of false friends e. Importantly, Koller a: points out that, while knowledge of correspond- ences is indicative of competence in the foreign language, it is knowledge and ability in equivalences that are indicative of competence in translation.
However, the question still remains as to what exactly has to be equivalent. These equivalence types are listed below: 1 Denotative equivalence, related to equivalence of the extralinguistic content of a text. This is closely linked to work by Katharina Reiss see Chapter 5. Koller describes the different types of equivalence in terms of their research foci. These are summarized in Table 3.
So, the translator first tries denotative equivalence and, if this is inade- quate, will need to seek equivalence at a higher level — connotative, text-norma- tive, etc. As she got more powerful she got sort of sexier. The problem is with the term sexier if we think of a potential translation into, say, Arabic.
If we try denotative equivalence i. Connotative equivalence e. Taking into account the needs of the TT readers i. Find examples from texts in your own languages to illustrate each type. Equivalence therefore continues to be a central, if criticized, concept. As might be imagined, scholars working in non-linguistic translation studies have been especially critical of the concept. Once the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence, the problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin to emerge.
The problem of the inevitable subjectivity that the invariant entails has been tackled by many scholars. In Chapter 4, we discuss taxonomic linguistic approaches that have attempted to produce a comprehensive model of translation shift anal- ysis. Chapter 7 considers modern descriptive translation studies. Yet there is still a great deal of practically oriented writing on translation that continues a prescriptive discussion of equiva- lence.
Translator training courses also, perhaps inevitably, tend to have this focus: errors by the trainee translators tend to be corrected prescriptively according to a notion of equivalence held by the tutor.
The three extracts in Box 3. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. Much theological debate has centred on the relation of verse to verse — namely whether in the beginning refers to the act of creation of the earth on the first day, or whether the first verse is a summary of the chapter. If the latter is the case, it would mean that a formless and empty earth existed before the creation of light in verse three.
Here, there are a number of differences between the TTs. In this case, it is the NEB which goes furthest to explaining the concept in terms the modern reader would immediately understand.
Similarly, the NEB uses the term surface in place of the metaphorical face of KJV, a metaphor to be found in the original Hebrew paneem. The NAB retains the element of wind, but sees God as simply representing a superlative force, hence the inter- pretation mighty.
Other possible translations are wind from God or breath of God, preserving both elements. On some occasions, for example in John 3 from the New Testament, the ST in that case Greek makes a play on the word pneuma, translated by KJV first as spirit and then wind.
The means by which the TTs attempt to achieve equivalent effect also differ: the NEB makes clear the links, including the choice of now at the start of verse It also explicates with surface, watery deep, and Spirit of God. On the other hand, the NAB maintains a focus on the desolate wilderness, with formless wasteland and mighty wind, even if cohesive links are added with the conjunctions when and while.
It also retains the threefold literal repetition of the conjunction and in verse This suggests that the KJV is most concerned with formal equivalence with the original, whereas the NEB and NAB are more oriented towards dynamic equivalence, making important adjustments for the receivers. There is little room for such adjustments or interpretation in some legal docu- ments, where the translation technique may be one of formal equivalence. An example is given in Box 3.
This Treaty marks a new stage in the process of creating an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe, in which decisions are taken as openly as possible and as closely as possible to the citizen.
In law, all versions of the treaty stand as equally valid. However, the goal of equivalent effect is also crucial in a legal text such as this. In order to function correctly, each text must stand for the same idea in each language and produce the same response.
Otherwise, varied interpretations would give rise to legal confusion and potential loopholes. In this respect it is perhaps surprising that the French version of the treaty should contain a slightly different perspective. Note the consequence of this practice for traditional views of equivalence and some of the problems which result.
How does the translator ensure that the effect will be the same on a Portuguese or British legal expert as it is on a French expert? When it comes to the translation of a religious text, such as the Bible, these questions multiply. It may, therefore, be more helpful to adopt his model not for the analysis of existing translations where the focus is on identifying what the trans- lator has done and what the effect is on the known audience but for the analysis of a ST that is to be translated.
Summary This chapter has examined important questions of translation raised by linguistics in the s and s. His concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence place the receiver in the centre of the equa- tion and have exerted huge influence over subsequent theoreticians, especially in Germany.
In the next chapter, we look at other scholars who have incorporated systematic linguistic models into the study of translation. Extensive criti- cism is to be found in Qian Hu a, b, a, b, and Snell- Hornby For analyses of meaning, see Osgood et al. For equivalence and corre- spondence, see Catford and ; see also Chapter 4 , Koller , Fawcett Chapter 5 , Kenny and Pym Chapters 2—3. What information is provided to ensure equivalence between terms?
Can it be said that the versions have achieved dynamic or formal equivalence? What tertium comparationis are you using in making your judgements? How far do their concepts differ from the western concept?
Q Vinay and Darbelnet : classic taxonomy of linguistic changes in translation. Q Cognitive models seek to explain the processes of translation through theory and observation. Q Think-aloud protocols and other experimental methods for analysing the translation process.
This chapter looks at ways of analysing translation, first as a linguistic product sections 4. Since the s, a variety of linguistic approaches to the analysis of transla- tion have proposed detailed lists or taxonomies in an effort to categorize what happens in translation. The scope of this book necessarily restricts us initially to describing a small number of the best-known and most representative models, though we shall expand the discussion to include more recent developments.
These terms are sometimes confused in writing about translation. As we saw in Chapter 1 pp. The two strategies comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers three: 1 Borrowing: The SL word is transferred directly to the TL. This category 31—2; covers words such as the Russian rouble, datcha, the later glasnost and perestroika, that are used in English and other languages to fill a semantic gap in the TL. Sometimes borrowings may be employed to add local colour sushi, kimono, Osho —gatsu.
Of course, in some technical fields there is much borrowing of terms e. In languages with differing scripts, borrowing entails an additional need for transcription, as in the borrowings of mathematical, scientific and other terms from Arabic into Latin and, later, other languages e.
For example, the French calque science-fiction for the English. Vinay and Darbelnet note that both borrowings and calques often become fully integrated into the TL, although sometimes with some semantic change, which can turn them into false friends. An example is the German Handy for a mobile cell phone. Their example is: English ST: I left my spectacles on the table downstairs. In those cases where literal translation is not possible, Vinay and Darbelnet say that the strategy of oblique translation must be used.
They list at least ten different categories, such as: verb A noun: they have pioneered A they have been the first; adverb A verb: He will soon be back A He will hurry to be back. It can be: Q obligatory: e. Modulation at the level of message is subdivided ibid.
Modulation therefore covers a wide range of phenomena. There is also often a process of originally free modulations becoming fixed expressions. For example, Vinay and Darbelnet suggest that the cultural connotation of a reference to the game of cricket in an English text might be best translated into French by a reference to the Tour de France.
Make a list of phenomena that are easy and difficult to catego- rize using their model. Among those that have maintained currency in translation theory are the following: Q Amplification: The TL uses more words, often because of syntactic expan- sion, e. The opposite of amplification is economy.
Q False friend: A structurally similar term in SL and TL which deceives the user into thinking the meaning is the same, e.
French librarie means not English library but bookstore. Translation does inevitably involve some loss, since it is impossible to preserve all the ST nuances of meaning and structure in the TL.
This may occur on the level of grammar e. English ST the doctor explicated as masculine or feminine in a TL where indication of gender is essential , seman- tics e. These three levels reflect the main structural elements of the book. Two further terms are introduced which look above word level. These are cohesive links also, and, but, and parallel structures , discourse markers however, first. Such levels of analysis begin to point to the text-based and discourse-based analysis considered in Chapters 5 and 6 of this book, so we shall not consider them further here.
However, one further important parameter described by Vinay and Darbelnet does need to be stressed.
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